The burials were disorganised, with skeletons lying in varied positions and orientations. Seven burials contained more than one individual and some were buried with grave goods, such as animal bones (chicken and horse), pottery and hob-nailed shoes.

 

During the skeletal analysis by York Osteoarchaeology, 7 children and 75 adults were found. All adults were young or middle-aged and only one of these was female, while the remainder were male. Even during the excavation, it was noted that an unusually high number of skeletons appeared to be decapitated and this increased to 70.8% of the total population during analysis. Most individuals had a single cut, but some had several cuts to the neck and most cuts were delivered from behind.  The severed heads had been placed in a variety of positions, mostly near the legs or in the correct anatomical position.

 

The individuals from Driffield Terrace suffered from a high incidence of childhood stress (cribra orbitalia and dental enamel hypoplasia), suggesting they were perhaps from the lower classes. Many skeletons had healed trauma, some of which was the result of interpersonal conflict, while some were accidental injuries. Infections and inflammations were also seen in many skeletons.

 

The unusual age and sex profile of the group, together with the long date range of the cemetery, high rate of trauma and decapitations indicate that this was an unusual group and it has been suggested that they may be slaves, soldiers or possibly gladiators, though as yet, an amphitheatre has not been found in York. It is perhaps most likely that the group were gladiators based on a large carnivore bite in the hip of one skeleton, which has sparked much media interest, especially, as very few gladiator burials have been excavated from the Roman Empire, except from Ephesus and possibly also from London.

 

York Osteoarchaeology and the York Archaeological Trust collaborated with the Universities of Teesside, Trinity College Dublin, York, Durham and Reading to research this population further. Isotope and aDNA evidence suggests that one of the Driffield Terrace individuals came from the Middle East, and two had eaten a mostly millet-based diet which points to growing up in a warmer climate where millet

was grown. Other individuals seem to have a genetic resemblance with Celtic populations, such as those from Wales. Further research is ongoing.

 

Our collaborative analysis suggests that the Driffield Terrace population consisted of mostly young, physically fit males who derived from a lower socioeconomic background. While some individuals originated from Britain, others came from further afield. Most sustained injuries during their lives, some of which led to inflammations. The majority of the individuals were decapitated from behind, perhaps after their deaths – this is not clear. It is important to consider that burial rituals that might seem unusual to us today were not necessarily regarded as such in the past.

 

Further reading